Writing for the web

Three overarching issues are crucial to successful writing for the web

1. Write for your audience
2. Write for the medium
3. Allocate, collaborate and iterate

1. Write for your audience

Before you write anything, consider:

• Who is your audience?
• What content are they looking for?
• What do they know about the topic/issue?
• What are their reasons for reading this text/page?

2. Write for the medium

Before you write anything, consider:

• It is about 25% harder to read text on screen
• Attention economics: in the information age, attention is the scarce resource
• Paradox of the active user
• Less than 20% of users read word-by-word. Most just scan text.

3. Allocate, collaborate and iterate

Good writing doesn't happen

• By chance - either hire a professional writer or assign responsibility for written content (or at least the approval/review process) to someone and acknowledge and support them in this role
• In a vacuum - get others to read and review your work to ensure that it is clear and conveys an accurate message for its intended audience
• In the first draft - expect to redraft several times until the text meets appropriate standards for the web. Be open to feedback from users and rework text accordingly

Presentation will focus on writing for the medium

• 3 essential strategies for writing for the web
• Techniques for longer texts
• Techniques for microcontent - very small text spaces
• Online documentation and FAQs

But also, important to remember the rules of good business writing

Good business writing appropriate online

• Write in the standard register
• Use plain English
• Use the active voice
• Follow spelling and grammar conventions
• Use punctuation and textual emphasis to clarify meaning

Scale of register

Registers are styles of language we adopt in particular situations

• Public or religious ceremonies: high or formal register
• Meetings or business discussions: standard register
• Chatting with friends over lunch: casual or informal register

Scale of register for written communication

Written language can also be plotted on a scale from formal to informal

• Legal documents, academic research results, official inquiries: formal register
• Training manuals, business correspondence: standard register
• Brochures, advertisements, personal correspondence: informal register

The use of a particular register implies a certain relationship with a reader (or listener).

Formal register and relationship with readers

• Hallmark of distance between participants
• Writer addresses reader from a lofty height
• Intended as a display of authority or to underscore respect that is due for the writer/source

Standard register and relationship with readers

• Neutral style of communication
• Neither distance nor undue familiarity in its relationship with readers
• Makes no assumptions about readers' knowledge and informs them fully
• Assumes only a common interest in the subject matter at hand

Informal register and relationship with readers

• Implies closeness between reader and writer
• Assumes mutual familiarity
• Assumes common knowledge of the situation being considered, so things don't need to be explained in full
• Intended to consolidate friendly relations

Examples of the three registers

Formal: In discussions yesterday, the Federal Cabinet focused on on the formulation of amendments to workers’ compensation legislation.

Standard: Cabinet ministers yesterday discussed how to word changes to the laws on workers compensation.

Informal: Yesterday, Canberra pollies worked on the new workers comp

Plain English

A strategy for improving communication. Typified by:

• Use of familiar, everyday words
• Short, simple sentences
• Use of the active, rather than passive voice
• Avoidance of euphemisms, trendy words, etc.

Roughly equates to the standard register.

Plain English examples

Which is easier to read?

• Commence or start
• Take into consideration or consider
• Assistance or help
• Implement a solution or fix the problem

Plain English example

Before

Financial planning is the development and implementation of a comprehensive plan designed to achieve established financial objectives. This process concentrates on your current financial requirements for funds and the establishment of a targeted financial position and outcome. Further, it provides a monitor of your progress allowing revisions to be made when necessary

After

Financial planning involves balancing your day-to-day needs with your long-term goals, and monitoring your progress along the way.

Active v passive voice

• Active voice: the subject takes the action
• Passive voice: the subject is acted upon

The chairman signed the contract.
Active: 'the chairman' takes the action

The contract was signed by the chairman.
Passive: 'the contract' was acted upon

Best to use the active voice

• Sentences are usually shorter
• More direct communication style
• Brings actions to life (the subject acts, rather than is acted upon)
• Less ambiguous than the passive voice

Active v passive voice examples

Jane created the graphics for this web site.
The graphics for this web site were created by Jane.

After being filled in, the form should be signed.
Fill in the form and sign it.

Maria slammed on the brakes to avoid the accident.
The accident was avoided by Maria slamming on the brakes.

3 essential strategies for the web

Research shows that significant usability improvements can be gained from writing that is:

1. Concise
2. Scannable
3. Objective

"A common thread between conciseness, scannability, and objectivity is that each reduces the user's cognitive load, which results in faster, more efficient processing of information."
John Morkes & Jakob Nielsen, 1998

Research on web writing

2 studies by Nielsen and Morkes

1. Travel site (5 versions tested)
2. Technical site (2 versions tested)

Jakob Nielsen and John Morkes, "Writing for the web"
http://www.useit.com/papers/webwriting/

Travel site

5 versions, each with essentially the same info

• Promotional (control) version
• Concise version
• Scannable version
• Objective version
• Concise, scannable, objective version

Each version had 7 pages with the same hyperlink structure

51 users took part in the study

• ages 22-69 (average 41)
• average 2 years experience online

Technical site

Two versions:

Version 1:  3 pages (each 2,200 words), using original version of documents

Version 2:  8 pages (each 350 words), rewritten to be concise, scannable, objective

21 technical users took part in the study

Test tasks

• Locate specific information
• Perform a judgement task
• Answer a questionnaire
• Do a short exam after 10 (8) minutes study time

Test measures

• Task time
• Errors
• Memory
• Reproduce site map (travel site only)
• Subjective satisfaction

Test results

Study 1

Study 2

Usability enhancements

Study 1

Overall usability improvement: 124% 
http://www.useit.com./papers/webwriting/writing.html 

Study 2

Overall usability improvement: 159% 
http://www.useit.com./papers/webwriting/rewriting.html 

1. Concise

"Every sentence, every phrase, every word has to fight for its life."
Crawford Kilian, Writing for the Web

Tips for writing concise text

• Cut unnecessary words 
• Use a shorter word over a longer one
• Cut unnecessary phrases or sentences
• Use the active voice whenever possible
• Print it out and edit it - be ruthless
• Try writing on a PDA!

Main culprit of bloat

"Happy text must die."
Steve Krug, Don't Make Me Think

Sources of happy talk

• Welcome messages
• Introductory text
• Explanations of what's on the site

Happy talk example

Student Info page at Northern Metropolitan Institute of TAFE

Happy talk example

Old version of the ITS/Web page

Reworked version

Another culprit of bloat

"Instructions must die"

"The main thing you need to know about instructions is that no one is going to read them--at least not until after repeated attempts at 'muddling through' have failed."
Steve Krug, Don't Make Me Think

Example of bloated instructions

Site survey at Verizon.com (no longer online)

Trimming bloated instructions

2. Scannable

The vast majority of users do not read text online word-by-word. Almost 80% scan it.

Tips for improving scannability

• Use headings and subheadings, and make them meaningful!
• Keep paragraphs short
• One topic per paragraph
• Opening sentence should be the topic sentence
• Use short, simple sentence structures
• Choose a shorter word over a longer one
• Emphasise key words or phrases (e.g. use pullquotes)
• Use bulleted lists

3. Objective

Techniques for writing objective text

• Limit the use of promotional writing or 'marketese'
• Avoid exaggeration or boasting
• Don't make subjective claims or claims without evidence
• Don't use buzzwords or jargon

Objective writing examples

Nebraska is filled with internationally recognised attractions that draw large crowds of people every year, without fail. In 1996, some of the most popular places were…

Nebraska has several attractions. In 1996, some of the most-visited places were…

In 1996, six of the most-visited places in Nebraska were…

Other beneficiaries

Writing concise, scannable and objective text brings with it some additional beneficiaries:

• Users with cognitive/reading difficulties
• Those using text-to-speech browsers

This is a case where usability = accessibility

Techniques for longer texts

1. Reverse the normal style of writing

• Introduction
• Background material
• Details/facts/premises
• Conclusions

And use 'inverted pyramids'

• Conclusion first
• Important details next
• Other details and background later

Example of an 'inverted pyramid' style

From Jakob Nielsen's useit.com

Techniques for longer texts

2. Write a summary paragraph

Summary should be designed to assist the user to determine whether:

• This is the document they were looking for
• This is something they will want to invest time in reading

Should not be a teaser, but an accurate summary of the document's contents.

Techniques for longer texts

3. Use page chunking for non-linear texts

• Split information into page-long hyperlinked chunks
• Each page should focus on a single topic or theme
• Background details can be provided on separate page(s)
• Provide a table of contents/introduction page with links to content chunks

Example of page chunking

From Jakob Nielsen's useit.com

Techniques for longer texts

4. Limit the use of within-page links

• Users think they're being taken to another page
• Users can get confused when they hit the back button and remain on the same page

Strategies for creating usable content archives

Some content cannot be repurposed for use on the web:

• Minutes and papers related to the work of committees and boards
• Some business documents and policies 
• Legal documents

Where this type of content is placed online:

• Make content archives searchable
• Develop a meta data strategy to assist in document identification and retrieval
• Provide concise summaries of documents

Writing microcontent

Microcontent includes page titles, headings, subheadings and hypertext links

Microcontent is often read out of context and/or truncated

• Search results
• Bookmarks/favourites
• Browser history lists
• During quick page scan
• Text-to-speech readers links summary

Microcontent example

Search results - search term "English"

Microcontent example

Bookmark list

Microcontent example

Browser  history list

Microcontent example

Hypertext links

Microcontent example

Screen reader links list

Microcontent techniques

1. Clear and accurate description

• Of what's on the page
• Of what's in the paragraphs beneath a heading or subhead
• Of what the hyperlink leads to

"A page title is microcontent and needs to be a pearl of clarity. You get 40 to 60 characters to explain what people will find on your page. Unless the title makes it absolutely clear what the page is about, users will never open it."
Jakob Nielsen, Designing Web Usability

Microcontent techniques

2. Short and scannable

• Avoid unnecessary words (e.g. "Welcome to...")
• Don't use all uppercase (harder to scan)
• Put important words first
• Don't use articles (A, The, etc.)

Microcontent techniques

3. All pages should have unique titles

• To identify one page on your site from another
• To assist users locate specific content

Online documentation

Help doesn't!

"It's just not acceptable for web sites to come with documentation."
Jakob Nielsen, Designing Web Usability

User interface design problems cannot be corrected by providing an online help system.

When might online documentation be used

Intranet

Staff may be willing to invest time in reading the documentation

Extranet

Business partners may be willing to invest time in reading the documentation

Internet

Most users won't be willing to read the documentation. They will do so only when they're in trouble and only if there is no other site offering the same information or service. Otherwise, it's easier just to go elsewhere.

Techniques for online documentation

• Searchable
• Concise
• Task oriented and provide step-by-step instructions
• Use examples to demonstrate concepts, solutions, issues
• Provide links to a glossary (use with care)

FAQs

FAQs are a way of providing fast access to important information.  

FAQs originated on newsgroups as a means of dealing with the inevitable raft of questions from "newbies". On newsgroups, information is dispersed throughout the postings made to the group.

FAQs are emerging as a means of providing online documentation to web users.

Techniques for FAQs

• Only include frequently asked questions in FAQs
• FAQs should have a table of contents
  • Avoid within-page links; link to separate page chunks
• Depending on the content, tables of contents may be organised in one or more of the following ways
  • By most popularly asked questions
  • By most important questions
  • By introductory content into deeper or more specific content (only for very short FAQs)
• Keep tables of contents short for easy scanning
• Break larger FAQs into separate topical FAQs
  • Alternatively, break up sets of questions with the use of headings, subheadings
• Repeat the question above the answer/response
  • Use appropriate formatting to distinguish between questions and answers
• Keep questions short
  • Consider highlighting key words or phrases as necessary
• Keep responses/answers short
  • Where longer responses are necessary, design for easy scanning

References

Jakob Nielsen, "How users read on the web"
http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9710a.html

John M. Carroll and Mary Beth Rosson, "The Paradox of the Active User"
http://www.cs.vt.edu/~rosson/papers/paradox.pdf

Michael H. Goldhaber, "The Attention Economy and the Net"
http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue2_4/goldhaber/

Style Guide, 6th edition

Jakob Nielsen & John Morkes, "Writing for the web"
http://www.useit.com/papers/webwriting/

Crawford Kilian, Writing for the Web

Steve Krug, Don't Make Me Think

Jakob Nielsen, Designing Web Usability

Jodi Bollaert, "Mind Your FAQs"
http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/usability/library/us-faq/